POST-INDEPENDENCE ERA

Pakistan Invade Jammu & Kashmir by Tribal Raiders Under "Operation Gulmarg" (1947)

 Ranbir Singh’s grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan. Rulers of Princely States were encouraged to accede their States to either Dominion – India or Pakistan, taking into account factors such as geographical contiguity and the wishes of their people. In 1947, Kashmir’s population was “77% Muslim and 20% Hindu”. To postpone making a hurried decision, the Maharaja of Kashmir signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan on 12 August 1947 in order to ensure continuity of trade, travel, communication and similar services between the two. 

However, Pakistan had different plans i.e to invade Jammu and Kashmir. The main invasion was planned and launched by the Army HQ of Pakistan and was called “Operation Gulmarg”. It was to  begin from Muzaffarabad on 22nd October, as stated by Major Onkar Singh Kalkat who could know about this plan while in Pakistan from the letter  written by the highest Army authority of Pakistan British C-in-C on  arrival in India.
The Jammu & Kashmir Govt had no knowledge of this planned massive invasion from Pakistan. The stoppage of supplies “Economic Blockade” by Pakistan had already created a very serious situation in the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

The State Govt tried to persuade Pakistan through the  diplomatic channels to honor its commitments under the “standstill agreement”.  Failing to get a positive response to its numerous communications the Prime Minister of Kashmir sent a rather strongly worded telegram to the Governor General of Pakistan, Mr Jennah on 18 Oct 1947, which read “Finally the Kashmir Govt wish to make it plain that it is not possible to tolerate the attitude longer without grave consequences to life and property of the people which it is bound to defend at all costs. The Govt even now hope that you would  personally look into the matter and put a stop to all the iniquities which are being perpetrated. If unfortunately this request is not heeded the Govt. fully hopes that you would agree that it would be justified in asking for friendly assistance and oppose trespass on its fundamental  rights”.

However, on 22 October 1947, Pakistan unilaterally broke the Agreement and launched an invasion by Pashtuns from Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province recruited by the Pakistan Army under operation Gulmarg to forcibly capture Jammu and Kashmir. These tribal raiders, as is well known, engaged in loot, rape and killing locals along the way.
Major  General Akbar Khan (Retd) of Pakistan Army in his book ‘Raiders in  Kashmir’ admitted the role of Pakistan’s top leadership in the Oct 1947 invasion of Kashmir. The ostensible aim of the guerilla campaign was to frighten Hari Singh into submission. 

Instead the Maharaja appealed to the Government of India for assistance and the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten agreed on the condition that the ruler accede to India. Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. 

India accepted the accession, regarding it provisional until such time as the will of the people can be ascertained. Kashmir leader Sheikh Abdullah endorsed the accession as ad hoc which would be ultimately decided by the people of the State. He was appointed the head of the emergency administration by the Maharaja. 

In May 1948, the Pakistan Army officially entered the conflict, in theory to defend the Pakistan borders, but it made plans to push towards Jammu & Kashmir and cut the lines of communications of the Indian forces.

India Goes to UN (1948)

On 01 Jan 1948, despite India winning 1947-48 India Pak war, Government of India formally introduced the Kashmir issue in the UN  under Article 35 of UN Charter, which permits any member state to bring  any situation that is likely to endanger international peace and  security to its attention. India said that Pakistan was invading Kashmir and asked the UNSC to take measures to prevent it. The UN passed a resolution and formed the United Nation Commission for  India and Pakistan (UNCIP) to investigate and mediate between the two  countries. 

Another resolution was passed in April 1948 which increased  the size of the Commission established through the earlier resolution. On 5 January 1949, UNCIP (United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan) resolution stated that the question of the accession of the State of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through a free and impartial plebiscite. The resolution recommended a three-step process to end the dispute:- 

  • Withdrawal from the State of Jammu and Kashmir of tribesmen and Pakistani nationals.
  • Government of India was asked to reduce its force from Jammu and Kashmir.
  • Government of India was also asked to appoint a plebiscite administration to hold a plebiscite.

Though as per the 1948 and 1949 UNCIP Resolutions, both countries accepted the recommendations but Pakistan never fulfilled the very first condition for plebiscite and assurances it made. In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured and eventually led to three more wars over Kashmir in 1965, 1971 and 1999. 

India has control of about two third of the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir whereas Pakistan controls a third of the region.

Indo-Pak War (1947-48)

The Indo-Pak War of 1947-48 was fought between India and Pakistan shortly after their independence from British rule. The war primarily centered around the region of Jammu and Kashmir.

Notable Events

Operation Gulmarg –  In October 1947, Pakistani tribal militias supported by regular troops launched an offensive to capture the Kashmir Valley. The Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir sought assistance from India,  leading to the deployment of Indian forces. Indian troops successfully defended the Baramulla town, which was under attack. This marked the first major victory for India in the war.

Recapture of Skardu – In May 1948, Indian forces launched an offensive to recapture the town of Skardu, which had fallen to Pakistani forces. The Indian Army achieved success and regained control of Skardu, which significantly improved India’s strategic position in the region.

Relief of Poonch – The town of Poonch, located in the Poonch district of  Jammu and Kashmir, was under siege by Pakistani forces. In November 1948, Indian forces launched a major offensive and successfully relieved the town, breaking the siege. This victory was crucial for India and helped secure its hold on the Poonch district.

Capture of Dras – The town of Dras, located in the Kargil district of  Jammu and Kashmir, was initially controlled by Pakistani forces. Indian  troops launched an offensive in early 1948 and successfully recaptured  Dras, thereby securing the region and denying Pakistan control over the  area.

Activities Related to Plebiscite (1952-64 )

 Signing of Delhi Agreement by Sheikh Abdullah With Indian Government 

Sheikh Abdullah signed the Delhi Agreement with the Indian government on Centre-State relationship.It provided for autonomy of the State within India and autonomy for regions within the State.

Besides reaching an agreement on citizenship, Indian flag, headship of the State and financial integration, the parties agreed to the Supreme Court jurisdiction in the following manner:- “It was agreed that the Supreme Court should have original jurisdiction in respect of disputes mentioned in Article 131 of the Constitution of India. It was further agreed that the Supreme Court should have jurisdiction in regard with the fundamental rights, which are to be agreed to by the State.”

Proposal of UN Representative, Frank P Graham (4 September 1952)

Graham Formula – De-militarisation of the Area / Question of accession be decided through democratic method of free and impartial plebiscite under UN.

UNSC Resolution 98 (24 December 1952)

The resolution was adopted by 9-0 votes. Pakistan did not participate in the voting. The resolution urged the Governments of India and Pakistan to enter into immediate negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations. Representatives for India and Pakistan to reach an agreement on specific number of troops to remain on each side of the cease fire line at the end of the previously established period of demilitarization. The suggested number was to be between 3,000 to 6,000 on the Pakistani side and 12,000 to 18,000 on the Indian side.

UNSC Resolution 122 (20 January 1957)

Australia, Cuba, United Kingdom and United States of America with 10-1 vote reaffirmed its 1951 resolution. It stated that no action taken by the Constituent Assembly can be a substitute for a plebiscite in determining the final disposition of the state. India’s Home Minister, Pundit Govind Ballabh Pant, during his visit to Srinagar, declared that the State of Jammu and Kashmir was an integral part of India and there can be no question of a plebiscite to determine its status afresh.

UNSC Resolution 123 (21 February 1957)

Adopted by the Security Council with 10-0 vote. After the conflict over Jammu and Kashmir intensified, the council requested the President of the Security Council to visit the subcontinent and, along with the governments of India and Pakistan, examine any proposals which were likely to contribute to the resolution of the dispute.

Gunnar Jarring’s Report (29 April 1957)

The UN representative on Kashmir from Sweden presented his report on J&K situation. He noted “The Council will, furthermore, be aware of the fact that the implementation of international agreements of an ad-hoc character, which has not been achieved fairly / speedily, may become progressively more difficult because the situation with which they were to cope has tendered to change.”

UNSC Resolution 126 (2 December 1957)

Certain amendments were introduced by the Representative of Sweden to the Joint Draft Resolution and adopted by the Security Council with 10-0 vote. It was the last of three resolutions passed during 1957 to deal with the dispute between the governments of India and Pakistan over the territories of Jammu and Kashmir. It requested that the governments of India and Pakistan refrain from aggravating the situation, and instructed the United Nations Representative for India and Pakistan to visit the subcontinent and report to the council with recommended action toward further progress.

India Reneges from Pledge on Plebiscite (5 February 1964)

The Indian representative tells the Security Council, “I wish to make it clear on behalf of my government that in no circumstances we can agree to the holding of a plebiscite in Kashmir.” Defense Minister, Kirshnan Menon, gives the reason: “Kashmir would vote to join Pakistan and no Indian Government responsible for agreeing to plebiscite would survive”.

Indo-Pak War (1965)

The 1965 war between India and Pakistan was a conflict primarily fought over the region of  Kashmir. several notable military  engagements during the war.

Notable Events

Operation Gibraltar – In July 1965, Pakistan launched Operation  Gibraltar, which involved sending infiltrators into Indian-administered  Kashmir to incite an insurgency. However, the Indian Army was able to  uncover and repel these infiltrators, leading to the failure of  Pakistan’s mission.

Battle of Haji Pir – The Haji Pir Pass, located in the Pir Panjal Range in Jammu and Kashmir, has been a  strategically important area for both India and Pakistan. The pass had traditionally been under the control of India, but during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, Pakistani forces managed to capture it. Following the capture of the Haji Pir Pass, Pakistan believed that it had gained a  significant advantage in terms of controlling the strategic area and disrupting Indian lines of communication in the region. However, the  pass became a major objective for the Indian Army, which sought to reclaim it. In August 1965, during the 1965 Indo-Pak War, the Indian Army launched an offensive to recapture the Haji Pir Pass. The operation involved a combination of infantry, artillery, and armor units. Despite facing resistance from Pakistani forces, the Indian Army managed to push forward and retake the pass. The recapture of the Haji Pir Pass was a significant victory for India as it allowed them to secure their side of the pass and regain control over the strategic route. The Indian Army’s successful operation at the Haji Pir Pass played a  crucial role in boosting the morale of Indian forces during the war. It  showcased the military’s determination and ability to reclaim lost territory

Battle of Asal Uttar – The Battle of Asal Uttar, fought in September  1965, was one of the largest tank battles since World War II. The Indian  Army successfully halted the advance of Pakistan’s armored division in  the Khem Karan sector of Punjab. The battle resulted in heavy losses for  Pakistan, and they were forced to retreat.

Operation Riddl – Operation Riddle was an Indian offensive launched in  the Sialkot sector of Pakistan in September 1965. The Indian Army made  significant gains, capturing several Pakistani posts and territory in  the region.

Defense of Chhamb – The Pakistani Army launched an offensive in the  Chhamb sector of Jammu and Kashmir in September 1965. However, the  Indian Army successfully defended the region and repelled the Pakistani  forces.

Indo-Pak War (1971)

  • During the 1971 Indo-Pak War, several key events took place in Jammu and Kashmir. Here are some of the significant events related to the region during that period:
  • December 3, 1971: The war between India and Pakistan broke out after Pakistan launched pre-emptive airstrikes on Indian airfields in the  western sector, including Jammu and Kashmir.
  • December 4, 1971: India launched a massive counter-offensive against  Pakistan, targeting various sectors, including Jammu and Kashmir.
  • December 5, 1971: Indian forces launched an offensive in the  Chhamb-Jaurian sector of Jammu and Kashmir. They made significant gains,  capturing several strategic posts.
  • December 16, 1971: Pakistan launched a major offensive in the  Shakargarh sector of Jammu and Kashmir, attempting to divert Indian  forces from their main objective in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
  • December 17, 1971: Indian forces successfully repelled the Pakistani  offensive in the Shakargarh sector, inflicting heavy casualties on  Pakistani troops.
  • December 19, 1971: The Indian Army launched “Operation Trident” in the  Arabian Sea, leading to a naval blockade of Pakistan and crippling its  maritime capabilities. This operation indirectly affected Jammu and  Kashmir by preventing Pakistan from effectively supporting its forces in  the region.
  • December  20, 1971: India launched “Operation Python” a military offensive in the  Poonch sector of Jammu and Kashmir. Indian forces captured strategic  posts and inflicted heavy casualties on Pakistani troops.
  • December 24, 1971: The Indian Army launched “Operation Vijay” in the  Turtuk sector of Jammu and Kashmir. Indian forces captured Turtuk, a  Pakistani-controlled village, and brought it under Indian control.
  • December 1971: As the war progressed, the liberation movement in East  Pakistan (now Bangladesh) gained momentum. Pakistan’s focus shifted from Jammu and  Kashmir to the crisis in the east.
  • December 16, 1971: The Indo-Pak War came to an end with the signing of  the Instrument of Surrender by Pakistan’s Eastern Command in Dhaka (now  Bangladesh) wherein Pakistan made a record of surrendering 93000 troops (Photograph towards right). This led to the creation of Bangladesh as a separate  nation.

Operation Topac - A Pakistani Conspiracy to Instigate Terrorism and Radicalisation in Kashmir (1984)

  • Pakistan has always vehemently denied any collusion in Jammu &  Kashmir, despite contriving tribal incursion of the State in 1947, 1965 (Operation Gibraltar) and most recently in 1999 (Kargil war). Pakistan had pre-planned an operation, referred to by several names viz. ‘Operation Topac’, ‘Kashmir Plan’ or ‘Zia Plan’ for  initiating terrorism and unleashing a proxy war in the State of Jammu & Kashmir with an objective of making it a part of Pakistan. Operation Topac, a brain-child of President Zia-ul-Haq of Pakistan, had a three-phase action plan for covert support to armed insurgency in Indian administered Jammu & Kashmir.
  • Under the first phase, youth from Jammu & Kashmir were to cross the de facto border (Line of Control – LoC) to seek weapon training at various training camps in Pakistan administered Jammu & Kashmir. During the second phase, called ‘Operation Stage’,  the Pak-trained youth were expected to indulge in large scale  subversive activities, like bomb blasts and shoot-outs, creating an atmosphere of terror and demoralising the administration. The third  phase, which was supposed to be the final stage of the operation, was to liberate the Muslim majority in the Kashmir Valley and establish an independent Islamic State.
  • “What Pakistan could not achieve through the wars of 1947-48, 1965 and 1971 had to be achieved through an amalgam of subterfuge, subversion, force and religious fundamentalism”, Jagmohan, an Ex-Governor of Jammu & Kashmir & Author of ‘My Frozen Turbulences in Kashmir’.

 

  • Amanullah Khan established the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF), originally a militant wing of the Plebiscite Front in Pakistan Administered Jammu & Kashmir. In May 1984, Amanullah Khan, then the Chairman of JKLF, was contacted by Lt Gen Akhtar Abdul Rehman (Photograph shown in right), a very close confidante and advisor of President Zia, the then head of Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) and the star of Pakistan’s campaign against Soviets in Afghanistan, to enlist the support of JKLF in initiating an insurgency in Indian Administered Jammu & Kashmir. 
  • The plan was finalised by 1986 and action started in July 1988. There are documentary evidences involving Pakistani based sources, corroborating their complicity in the violence in the Kashmir Valley. JKLF, supported by the Pakistani Army, established training camps in Pakistan Administered Jammu & Kashmir with plans of weapons training for the youth from the Kashmir Valley. 
  • In February 1990, Amanullah Khan in an interview to Zahid Hussain of Karachi monthly  magazine Newline, said in reply to a question by a journalist, “How did you mobilise the uprising? Was it a long-term plan?”, replied; “Yes, it was… it had to be well prepared. So, we actually started political planning in 1986 and continued till the end of 1987 for one and a half  years we were planning our strategy and it began in July 1988”.
  • Operation Topac, to be launched in 1991 had to be prematurely implemented owning to the sudden death of Zia-ul-Haq and General Akhtar in the air crash of 17 August 1988. General Zia-ul-Haq’s death in the said plane crash in Pakistan in 1988, triggered large scale rioting in Srinagar, Baramulla, Pulwama, Bhaderwah and Anantnag, which eventually became areas of militant strongholds. The process of blasting of bombs, holding demonstrations and rioting to whip up passions of local population continued till the end of 1988. In early 1990, Amanullah Khan, very  explicitly said in an interview with Times London, that the uprising was a product of well laid plans and that the young men who crossed the LoC received weapons training through his  organization based in Pakistan Administered Jammu & Kashmir.
  • “We chose Srinagar and the Kashmir valley as the first stage of our attack, what has happened so far is the urban phase, mostly sabotage and hit and run tactics (phase one of ‘Operation Topac)”, Dr Farooq Haider, Vice Chairman of the JKLF – revealed to the Economist (London).
  • Zia-ul-Haq’s obsessive passion for Jammu & Kashmir was very well known as he went on record shouting slogans “Kashmir Banega Pakistan” (Kashmir will become a part of Pakistan). Some observers opine that as the ‘Afghan Struggle’ against the Soviets during Zia-ul-Haq’s regime was nearing completion, Operation Topac was  a very well-planned move to prolong his rule by involving the majority community of Kashmiri Muslims without repeating the mistakes committed in 1965. In nutshell, it is true to say that Pak radicalised the youth of Kashmir which impacted the dynamics in Jammu and Kashmir quite negatively for furthenance of Pak’s agendas.

Intrusion by Pakistan in Indian Territory - Kargil Conflict (1999)

  • In 1999, Pakistan’s intrusion into Kashmir refers to the Kargil conflict, also known as the Kargil War, which took place between May and July. The  conflict arose when Pakistani forces infiltrated the Kargil in Jammu and Kashmir, violating the Line of Control  (LoC), the de facto border between the two countries.
  • The  Kargil conflict was a significant escalation of the long-standing  territorial dispute between two countries. 
  • In  early 1999, Pakistani military personnel and armed militants crossed  the LoC into the Indian territory of Kargil. Pakistan’s objective was to seize strategic positions along the heights overlooking crucial Indian supply routes.
  • The intrusion was carried out without the knowledge of the Pakistani  civilian government, which further complicated the situation. Pakistan  initially denied its involvement in the conflict, portraying the infiltrators as Kashmiri freedom fighters. However, mounting evidence, including captured soldiers and intercepted communications, revealed Pakistan’s direct military involvement.
  • India responded swiftly to the intrusion, launching a military operation to  evict the Pakistani forces from the Indian side of the LoC. The conflict  escalated into a full-scale war, with both sides engaging in intense  artillery exchanges and ground combat. The challenging terrain and harsh  weather conditions added to the complexity of the conflict.
  • The Indian military gradually regained control of the infiltrated areas, employing ground troops, artillery fire and air power. The conflict reached a turning point when the Indian Air Force launched Operation Safed Sagar, targeting Pakistani positions with airstrikes.
  • International  pressure mounted on Pakistan to withdraw its forces from the Indian  side of the LoC. The United States, along with other countries, played a crucial role in brokering a ceasefire and facilitating negotiations  between India and Pakistan. Eventually, Pakistan was compelled to  withdraw its troops and accept the pre-conflict positions along the LoC.

Abrogation of Article 370 (2019 and Onwards)

  • In August 2019, the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian constitution in 2019 and the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, which contained provisions to dissolve the state and reorganise it into two union territories – Jammu and Kashmir in the west and Ladakh in the east. These changes came into effect from 31 October 2019. 
  • Efforts have been made by the Government of India to improve road connectivity, develop tourism infrastructure and attract investment for economic growth. Projects like the construction of tunnels and highways have been undertaken to improve connectivity within and outside the region.
  • The government has implemented various socio-economic initiatives to  promote development in Kashmir. These include schemes for skill  development, job creation, entrepreneurship and the promotion of  tourism. There has been a focus on boosting the local economy and providing opportunities for the  youth for all round and sustainable development in the region. 
  • The government has highlighted the economic potential of the valley and taken steps to create a favorable investment climate.

Investment Promotion

  • The  government has launched various initiatives and programs to promote investment in Jammu and Kashmir. These initiatives aim to attract domestic as well as foreign investors to the region. Efforts have been made to showcase the business potential in sectors such as tourism, horticulture, handicrafts, agriculture, renewable energy, and  infrastructure development.

Global Investor Summits

  • The  government has organised Global Investor Summits to showcase investment opportunities in Jammu and Kashmir. These summits bring together business leaders, investors and policymakers to explore potential collaborations and investment avenues. The summits serve as platforms to highlight the economic potential of the region and attract investment  across sectors.
  • Youth empowerment programs and outreach activities have been undertaken by the Government of India to promote peace, development and inclusivity in the region.

G20 Summit - May 2023

  • G20 tourism meeting was held at Srinagar from 22 May 2023 to 24 May 2023 with 60 delegates from 27 countries, expectations to see a boost in tourist footfall in the Valley from these countries has risen among local residents. 
  • Tourists were seen clicking selfies with the foreign guests, who also  tried traditional Kashmiri attire. Some of the delegates had a session at the Royal Spring Golf Course. 
  • G-20 Sherpa Mr. Amitabh Kant said the delegates were equally impressed by Kashmir’s tourism potential. “It has been a brilliant experience, fabulous hospitality, warmth and affection. We  have truly enjoyed this visit because we have been able to do a lot of hard work. We have been able to see Kashmir and enjoy the great affection of the people of Kashmir.”